Vedic Doctrine of Hinduism

By the end of the Later Vedic Age, six prominent schools of Hindu Philosophy had been established. They are as follows:

Darshans	Authors	Year of Beginning	Original Book	Theme
Nyaya	Gautama	6th BC	Nyaya Sutra	It is a logical quest for God. It tells that the material power Maya, with the help of God, becomes the universe.
Vaisheshik	Kanada	6th BC	Vaisheshik Sutra	It aims is to receive happiness in this life and finally ultimate liberation through the attachment of true knowledge of the Divine.
Sankhya	Kapila	6th BC	Sankhya Sutra	It explains that the aim of Sankhya is to eliminate all kinds of physical and mental pains and to receive liberation.
Yoga	Maharishi Patanjali	2nd BC	Yog Sutra	It has four chapters and accepts three kinds of evidences for determining the aim of life.
Purva Mimansa	Jaimini	4th BC	Purva Mimansa Sutra	It is condensed explanation of Vedic theme and at the same time, the classification of its issues.
Vedanta (Uttara Mimansa)	Maharishi Vyasa	4th BC	Uttara Mimansa Sutra	It explains that Brahama Sutra is for that person who has a real deep desire to know God. True liberation could only be attained by lovingly surrendering to Him.

Vedic Civilisation

Origin of Indian Music - Samveda Mention of Word 'Shudra' - Rigveda 10th Mandala Gayatri Mantra - Rigveda Mention of word 'Yajna' - Brahmana Somaras (drink) - Rigveda (9th Mandala) Varna - Rigveda Four fold division of Society - Rigveda 10th Mandala Mention of four Ashrams - Jabala Upanishada War between Aryan & Dasas - Rigveda Transmigration of Soul - Brahadaranyka Upanishada

Five divisions of India - Aiteraya Brahamana Wife and Husband are complementary - Satapathabrahmana Battle of Ten kings - Rigveda (7th Mandala) Superiority of Brahmins - Aiteraya Brahmana Rajanaya - Rigveda 10th Mandala Marut as Agriculturist - Satpatha Brahmana Satyameva Jayate - Mundaka upanishada Pashupath Shiva - Atharveda Vishnu - Satapatha Brahmana Conversion between Yam & Nachiketa - Katha Upanishada

India Vedic Literature

FOUR VEDAS
Samveda
Rhthmic compilation of hymns for Rigveda "Book for Chants" contains 1,549 hymns, meant to be sung at the 'soma' sacrifice by a special class of Brahmanas called Udgatris. But the Samaveda has very little original value. Has only 75 fundamental hymns Karnataka - Jaiminga Gujarat - Kanthun Maharashtra - Ranayaniya Sung by Udgatri
Rigveda
Collection of hymns Oldest of all vedas Associated of 1017 hymns or Suktas after adding "Blhilya Sukta" number in 1028 Compiled in 10 'mandalas' & 8 'Akhtaks'. Also contains the famous Gayatri Mantra II, III, IV, V, VI & VII are oldest mandalas I, VIII, IX, X are latest mandalas. The Tenth "Mandalas" or chapter which has the "Purushasukta" hymn, was probably added later. Mandala IX is completely devoted to 'Soma'. Mandala II to VII were created by Grita Samada, Vishwamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadwaj, Vashistha, VIII Kanwa and Angira, IX Soma
Yajurveda
Book of sacrifical prayers Rituals of yajnas Is sung of priest "Adhavaryu" Its mantras tell us how the sacrifices were to be performed and what part the "Adhvaryus"- the Brahmanas who performed the manual work in the arrangement of sacrifice were to play at the time of sacrifice. Has been compiled in "fourth path" Has been divided into, Krishna(black) Yajurveda & Shukla(white) Yajurveda Prose text
Atharvaveda
Mantras for magic spells Populate ritualistic system & superstitions Associated with "Saunkiya" and "Paiplad" community Collection of 711/731/760 hymns Not included in 'Trai' Has been divided in 20 "Kandas" 18th, 19th & 20th 'Kandas' are later works Provides freedom from evils spirits. Oldest text on Indian Medicine.

The vast literature of the Aryans is divided into two parts - Sruti and Smriti 

1. Sruti Literature: The word Veda has been divided from the Sanskrit word Ved, which means 'spiritual knowledge'. The Vedas are four in number - Rig Veda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. The Rig Veda contains a references only to the first three Vedas, which suggests that the fourth Veda was composed at some later date.
The Vedic literature is usually divided into three periods:-

1. The Mantra period when the Samhitas were composed
2. Brahaman period when the Brahamanas, Upanishads and Aranyakas were composed
3. the Sutra period.

These three periods succeeded or overlap each other.
Brahmanas are massive prose text which contain speculation of the meaning of the hymns, give precepts for their application, relate stories of their origin in connection with sacrificial rites and explain the secret meaning of the later.

Vedas and their Brahmanas
1.	Rigveda	Aitereya and Kaushitaki
2.	Samaveda	Tandya and Jaiminiya
3.	Yajurveda	Tattiriya and Satpatha
4.	Atharvaveda	Gopatha

The Aranyakas are the concluding parts of the Brahamanas. It doest not lay much stress on rites, rituals and sacrifices, but merely contain the philosophy and mysticism. The lead with the problems of soul, origin and elements of universe and the creation of universe.

Aranyaka
Literarily, it means 'Jungle' Provides description of Moral Science and Philosophy Provides details of hermits and saints who lived in Jungles Give stress on meditation Protests the system of 'Yajnas'

It would be appropriate to describe Upanishadas as mystic writings. There are 108 Upanishads in all, the most prominent of them being Ish, Prasana, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chhandogaya, Kathoupanishad, Ishopanishad, Brehadaranyaka, etc.

Upanishada

Literary meaning is 'Satra' (to sit near masters feet) in which Guru offers band of knowledge to their disciples Is a combination of Tatva-mimansa and philosophy They are also called "Vedanta" Primitive upanishada are "Brahadaranyaka" and "Chandogya" Later Upnishada like "Katha" and "Swetaswatar" have been written in poetic forms. Brahma is the summary of philosophy, which is the only a 'truth' in the world. Knowledge awards salvation says Upanishadas Oldest possibility Narsinghpurvatapani Latest possibility Allopanishada in Akbar's reign

2. Smriti Literature: Smriti is traditional knowledge and designates almost the entire body of post-Vedic classical Sanskrit literature. Smriti literature generally includes the following overlapping subjects:-

1. The Vedangas: They refer to certain branches of post-Vedic studies regarded as auxiliary to the Vedas. The Vedangas are conventionally divided into six heading namely:- (i) Kalpa or the ritual canon, including the dharma shastras or legal codes, (ii)Jyotisha or astronomy, (iii) Siksha or phonetics, (iv)Chhanda or metre (v) Nirukta or etymology (vi)Vyakarana (Grammer)
2. The Shad-Darsana: Six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, namely Nyaya, 'Vaiseshikha', Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta.
3. Itihasa: Legendary or semi-legendary works, specifically the Ramayana and Mahabharata and often extended to the Puranas.
4. Puranas: Being a fairly late description of ancient legends, they are heavily coloured with the superstitions. The Puranas represent the most corrupt form of Hinduism. They are 18 in number
   

   The Eighteen Puranas
   1	Brahma Purana	2	Vishnu Purana
   3	Shiva Purana	4	Padma Purana
   5	Shrimad Bhagwat Purana	6	Agni Purana
   7	Narad Purana	8	Markandey Purana
   9	Bhavishya Purana	10	Ling Purana
   11	Varah Purana	12	Vaman Purana
   13	Brahm Vaivertya Purana	14	Shanda Purana
   15	Surya Purana	16	Matsya Purana
   17	Garuda Purana	18	Brahmand Purana

5. Upaveda: Also known as the auxiliary Vedas, they deal with medicine, architecture, erotics, archery and various arts and crafts. These were partly derived from original Vedic texts and were traditionally associated with one or other of the Vedas.
6. Tantras: Tantras are the writings of Shakta or Shaivite sects and also of certain antinomian Buddhist scholars
7. Agamas: They are scriptures of sectarian Hindus like Vaishnavites, Shaivites and Shaktas.
8. Upangas: They are a generic name for any collection of treatises although traditionally confined to the philosophical systems of 'Nyaya' and 'Mimansa' - the 'Dharma Sutras' the 'Puranas' and the 'Tantras'

3. Epics: Some historians regard the Later Vedic Period as the Period of Epics. The Mahabharata and the Ramayana are the two great epics of this period.
Ramayana: It is said to have been composed by the sage, Valmiki. The incident related in it precedes the Mahabharata by about a hundred and fifty years. The story of Ramayana is of indigenous origin and had existed in ballad form in Prakrit, in more than one version. It was rewritten in Sanskrit and augmented with many 'Shlokas'. The epic was given a Brahmanical character which was not visible in the original work. It is also known as Adi Kavya. Evidence places the oldest part of the Ramayana to before 350 BC. The reference in the epic to the mingled hords of Yavanas and Shakas suggests that it received accretions in the Graeco-Scythian period and may have acquired its final shape by about AD 250.

Mahabharata: The Mahabharata is the bulkiest epic consisting of 100,000 verses and is divided into 18 paravas (books). This book is usually assigned to Rishi Ved Vyas, but scholars have expressed doubts if such a great work could have been accomplished by one single person. The story itself occupies only about one-fourth of the poem. It is a tale about conflict between Aryans-Kaurava and Pandava. The rest is episodical comprising cosmology, theogony, state craft, the science of war, ethics, legendary history, mythology, fairy tales and several digressional and philosophical interludes, of which the best known is the Bhagavad Gita

Religion in Later Vedic Period India

Religion in Later Vedic Period

The two outstanding Rig Vedic gods, Indra and Agni, lost their former importance. On the other hand Prajapati, the creator, came to occupy the supreme position in later Vedic pantheon. Rudra, the god of animals, became important in later Vedic times and Vishnu came to be conceived as the preserver and protector of the people. In addition, some symbolic objects began to be worshipped, and we notice signs of idolatry. Pushan, who was supposed to look after cattle, came to be regarded as the god to the sudras. Important female deities during the Later Vedic Age were: Usha (goddess of Dawn), Aditi (Mother of Gods), Prithvi (Earth Goddess), Aryani (Forest Goddess) and Saraswati (River deity). The mode of worship changed considerably. Prayers continued to be recited, but they ceased to be the dominant mode of placating the gods. Sacrifices became far more important, and they assumed both public and domestic character. The guest were known as the goghna or one who was fed on cattle. The priests who officiated at sacrifices were regarded generously and givendakshinas or gifts.

Chief Priests
The Chief priests who were engaged in performing the sacrifices were:- Hotri: The invoker, he recited hymns from Rig Veda Adhvaryu: The executor, he recited hymns from Yajur Veda. Udgatri: The singer, he recited hymns from Sama Veda The Chief Priests received voluntary offering from the people called Bali

Important Vedic Rituals

Rajasuya: The King's influence was strengthened by rituals. He performed this sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme power on him. Asvamedha: A King performed the Asvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over the area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted. The ceremony laster for three days at the end of which horse sacrifice was performed. Vajapeya: A king performed the Vajpeya or the chariot race, in which the royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen. The ritual lasted for seventeen days and was believed not only to restore the strength of the middle-aged king but also to elevate him from the position to raja of that of samrat Garbhadhana: A ceremony which is performed to promote conception in women Pumsayam: This ritual is performed to procure a male child Semontonayam: It is ritual performed to ensure the safety of the child in the womb. Jatkarma: It is a birth ceremony performed before the cutting of the umbilical cord. Culakarma: It is a ritual, also known as tonsure, performed for boys in their third year. Upanayana: It is an initiation ceremony to confor dvija(twice horn) status of boys of the higher varnas in their eight year.

Later Vedic Society in hindi

Social Organisation: The later Vedic society came to be divided into four varnas called the Brahmanas, rajanyas or kshatriyas, vaisyas andshudras, each varna was assigned with its duty. Brahmanas conducted rituals and sacrifices for their clients and for themselves, and also officiated at the festivals associated with agricultural operations. They prayed for the success of their patron in war, and in return the king pledged not to do any harm to hem. Sometimes, the brahmanas came into conflict with the rajanyas, who represented the order of the warrior-nobles, for position of supremacy. Towards the end of the Vedic period, they began to engage in trade. All the three higher varnas shared one common feature, they were known as Dvijas (twice born), i.e., they were entitled to upanayana or investiture with the sacred thread according to the Vedic mantras. The fourth varna was deprived of the sacred thread ceremony, and with its began the imposition of disabilities on the shudras. Outside the caste-system, there stood two important bodies of men, namely, Vratyas and Nishadas.
According to the Aitareya Brahmana, in relation to the prince, the brahmana is described as a seeker of livelihood and an acceptor of gifts but removable at will. A vaisya is called tribute-paying, meant for being beaten, and to be oppressed at will. The worst position is reserved for the shudra. He is called the servant of another. Certain section of artisans such asrathakara or chariot-maker enjoyed a higher status, and were entitled to the sacred thread ceremony. The term Nagaraappears for the first time showing joint beginnings of town life. Women were generally giver a lower position. Although some women theologians took part in philosophic discussions and some queens participated in coronation rituals, ordinarily women were thought to be inferior and subordinate to men.

Types of Marriages in the Later Vedic Age
Brahma	Marriage of a duly dowered girl to a man of the same varna with Vedic rites and rituals
Daiva	Father gives the daughter to the sacrificial priests as part of fee or dakshina.
Arsa	A token bride-price of a cow and a bull is given.
Prajapati	Marriage without dowry and bride-price.
Gandharva	Marriage by the consent of two parties, often clandestine. A special form of it was swayamvara or self choice.
Asura	Marriage by purchase.
Paisacha	It is seduction of a girl while asleep, mentally deranged or drunk, hence it can hardly be called a marriage.
Rakshasa	Marriage by Capture

Marriage: Eight types of marriage were prevalent in the later Vedic age. Of these, four (Brahman, Daiva, Arsa and Prajapati) were generally approved and were permissible to Brahmans. These were religious marriages and were indissoluble.
Anuloma Marriage: Marriage of a man below his varna was called Anuloma. It was sanctioned by the sacred texts.
Pratiloma Marriage: Pratiloma marriage was the marriage of a girl or women to one lower than her own varna. It was not sanctioned by the sacred texts.
Gotra System: The institution of gotra appeared in later Vedic times. Literally, it means the cow-pen or the place where cattle belonging to the whole clan are kept. The gotra has been regarded as a mechanism for widening the socio-political ties, as new relationships were forged between hitherto unrelated people. People began to practise gotra exogamy. No marriage could take place between persons belonging to the same gotra or having the same ancestor.
Ashrama System: Ashramas or four stages of life were not well established in early Vedic times. In the post-Vedic texts, we hear of four ashramas: that of brahmachari or student, grihastha or householder, vanaprastha or partial retirement andsanyasa or complete retirement from the world. But only three are mentioned in the later Vedic texts. The last or the fourth stage had not been well-established in Later Vedic times. 4th Ashrama only mentioned in Jabala Upanishad.
Food and Drinks: The staple diet was milk and ghee, vegetables, fruit and barely. Wheat was rarely eaten. On ceremonial occasions at a religious feast or the arrival of a guest, a more elaborate meal usually including the flesh of ox, goat, sheep and birds were taken after being washed with sura. Fish and other river animals were also relished upon. The guests were never served vegetarian foods, or at least one non-vegetarian food was compulsory.
Dress: Clothes were simple. Two piece clothes were normally worn: uttariya or the upper garment and antariya or the lower garment. There was no difference between the clothes of male and female. Ornaments were used by both the sexes and bangles were worn by privileged few, Shoes were used. Use of oil, comb, mirror razors, hair ointment and a few cosmetics was known.
Amusements: Music, both vocal and instrumental, was the major source of amusements. Playing of veena, drum flute, harp and cymbals were more common, also were dance. Chariot-racing and gambling were other sources of amusement.
Education: It was for a privileged few. Only Brahamanas and Kshatriyas were allowed to get education. Even women education was discouraged and the study of Vedic literature were forbidden to women in spite of the fact that a few gifted women scholars were present at the time and female teachers were also there.
The subject taught were veda, itihasa, grammer, mathematics etihcs, dialectics, astronomy, military science, fine arts, music and medical science.s

Later Vedic Polity and Economy

Political Organisation: In later Vedic times, the vidatha completely disappeared. The sabha and samiti continued to hold the ground, but their character changed. Women were no longer permitted to sit in the sabha, and it was now dominated by nobles and Brahmanas. The formation of wider kingdoms made the king more powerful. Tribal authority tended to become territorial. The term rashtra, which indicates territory, first appears in this period. The King performed the rajasuya sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme power to him. He performed the asvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over an area in which the royal house ran uninterrupted. He also performed the vajapeya or the chariot race, in which the royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen. During this period collection of taxes and tributes, the king officer called sangrihitri.
Even in later Vedic times the king did not possess a standing army. Tribal units were mustered in times of war, and, according to one ritual for success in war, the king had to eat along with his people from the same plate.

Regions and Kings
Eastern King	Samrat
Western King	Suvrat
Northern King	Virat
Southern King	Bhoja
King of middle country	Raja

Imp Ratnins/Officials in Later Vedic Period
Purohita	Chief Priest, in also sometimes referred to as Rashtragopa
Senani	Supreme Commander of army
Vrajapati	Officer-in-Charge of pasture land
Jivagribha	Police Officer
Spasas/Dutas	Spies who also sometimes worked as messengers
Gramani	Head of the village
Kulapati	Head of the family
Madhyamasi	Mediator on disputes
Bhagadugha	Revenue collector
Sangrahitri	Treasurer
Mahishi	Chief Queen
Suta	Charioteer and court minstrel
Govikartana	Keeper of games and forests
Palagala	Messenger
Kshatri	Chamberlain
Akshavapa	Accountant
Sthapati	Chief Justice
Takshan	Carpenter

Kingdoms in the Later Vedic Age
Kingdom	Location
Gandhar	Rawalpindi and Peshawar districts of Western Punjab
Kekaya	On the bank of River Beas, east of Gandhar kingdom
Uttar Madra	Kashmir
Eastern Madra	Near Kangra
Southern Madra	Near Amritsar
Kushinagar	Nothern region of modern Uttar Pradesh
Panchal	Bareilly, Badayun and Farrukhabad districts of modern Uttar Pradesh
Kashi	Modern Varanasi
Koshal	Faizabad region of today's Uttar Pradesh

Occupation: The Aryans now lived a sedentary life, domesticated animal and cultivated on a greater scale than earlier suger-cane. Cattle still constituted the principal form of movable property. Elephants were tamed. However, the idea of private possession of land gradually began to crystallize. Wheat was also cultivated during this period along with barley. Rice is mentioned in sources but was not an important crop at this time. Beans and Sesame and pulses such as Moong, Urad etc. were also known. New arts, artists and craftsmen also emerged i.e. smelters, ironsmiths, carpenters, weavers, leather workers, jewellers, dyers and potters. Trade was also boosted.
Pottery: The later Vedic Aryans used four types of pottery- Black and Red Ware, Black Slipped Ware, Painted Grey Ware(PGW), and Red Ware. The black and red earthen pots were used around 600 BC by the people of Koshala. The Aryans knew copper or bronze and Iron. The introduced the PGW in northern India. It consisted of bowls and dishes, which were used either for rituals or for eating or both. These were mostly found to the upper Gangetic basin.
Currency: A gold piece of specific weight called Satamana is mentioned in Sathapatha-Brahmana. Nishka was the popular currency. Suvarna and Krishnala were two other classes of coins of circulation. Barter system will continued in spite of the presence of metallic coins. Money-lending was a lucrative trade and the interest on loan was moderately charged. The usurer is mentioned as Kusidin.

Early Vedic Religion, Rig Vedic Gods

The early Vedic religion was naturalistic. Evidently, there were neither temples nor idols. The mode of prayer was recitation of mantras. Sacrifice was offered for Praja (children), Pasu (cattle) and Dhana (wealth) and not for spritual upliftment or misery.

Early Vedic Religion

Believed in one Supreme God Did not believe in idol worship Worshipped the forces of nature as the manifestation of one Supreme God Vedic Gods have been classified into 3 categories - Terrestrial, Atmospheric and Celestial Indra, Agni, Varuna, Surya, Rudra, Yama, Soma, Marut, Dyaus, Vayu and Prajanaya. Prithvi, Saraswati, Usha, aditi were female deities. They were not given the same position as male Gods. People did not worship for spiritual reasons but for the welfare ofPraja & Pashu Recitation of prayers, chanting of Vedic hymns and sacrifices or yajnas were an important part of the worship.

Rig Vedic Gods
Indra	He was the most important divinity. He played the role of a warlord, leading the Aryan soldiers to victory against the demons. 250 hymns are devoted to him in the Rig Veda. He was associated with thunder and storm and is addressed by various names: Ratheshtha, Jitendra Somapa, Purandra, Varitrahan and Maghayam
Agni	He was the second important divinity. He was intermediary between Gods and men. 200 hymns of the Rig Veda are devoted to him.
Varuna	He was the upholder of Rita or cosmic order or natural order. He personified water.
Soma	He was considered to be the God of plants. An intoxicant drink was also called soma.
Yama	He was the guardian of the world of dead.
Surya	Similar to that of the Greek God Helios
Savitri	The famous Gayatri mantra is addressed to Savitri
Pusan	Lord of jungle path, main function was that of guarding of roads, herdsmen and cattle.
Vishnu	A relatively minor God at that time.
Vayu	Wind God
Dyaus	Father of Heaven
Aditi	Goddess of Eternity
Maruts	Storm Spirits
Gandharvas	Divine Musicians
Ashvins	Healers of diseases and experts in surgical art
Ribhus	Gnomes
Apsaras	Mistresses of Gods
Rudra	An archer of God, whose anger brought disease
Vishvadeva	Intermediate Deities
Aranyani	Goddess of Forest
Usha	Goddess of Dawn
Prithvi	Goddess of Earth

Socio Economic Life in Rig Vedic Period

Tribal Organizatoin: Kinship was the basis of social structure. People gave their primary loyalty to the tribe, which was called jana. Another important term which stands for the tribe in the Rig Veda isvis. Probably the vis was divided into grama or smaller tribal units meant for fighting. When the gramas clashed with one another, it causedsamgrama or war. The term for family (kula) is mentioned rarely in the Rig Veda. It seems that family in early Vedic Phase was indicated by termgriha. Differentiation in family relationship leading to the setting up of seperate households had not proceeded far, and the family was a very large joint unit. It was obviously a patriarchal family headed by the father. Since it was a patriarchal society, the birth was desired again and again.Marriage and Status of Women: The institution of marriage was established, although symbols of primitive practices survived, We also notice the practice of levirate and widow remarriage in the Rig Veda. The status of women was equal to men and they received Upanayana and education, studied Vedas and some of them even rose to the rank of seers composing Vedic hymns. Monogamy was established, though polygamy and polyandry were also known.

Varna System: Varna was the term used for colour, and it seems that the Aryans were fair and the indigenous inhabitants dark in complexion. The dasas and dasyus, who were conquered by the Aryans, were treated as slaves and sudras. Gradually, the tribal society was divided into three groups-warriors, priests and the people. The fourth division called the Shudras appeared towards the end of the Rig Veda period. In the age of Rig Veda, divisions based on occupations had started. But this division was not very sharp.
Occupation: Their earliest life seems to have been mainly pastoral, agriculture being a secondary occupation. The Aryans did not lead a settled life. Although they used several animals, the horse played the most significant role in their life. The Rig Vedic people possessed better knowledge of agriculture. Ploughshare is mentioned in the earliest part of the Rig Veda though some consider it an interpolation. The term for war in the Rig Veda is gavisthi or 'search for cows'. The Rig Veda mentions such artisans as the carpenter, the chariot-maker, the weaver, the leather worker, the potter, etc. This indicates that they practiced all these crafts. The term, ayas used for copper or bronze shows that metal working was known.

Metals Known to Rig Vedic People
Gold	Hiranya
Iron	Shyama
Copper	Ayas

Diet: The Indo-Aryans, while sharing the ancient Iranian veneration for the cow, felt no scruple about sacrificing both fulls and cows at weddings or on other important occasions. The persons who took part in the sacrifice ate the flesh of the victim, whether bull, cow, or horse. But meat was eaten only as an exception. Milk was an important article of food, and was supplemented by cakes of barley or wheat (yava), vegetables and fruit.
Strong Drinks: The people freely indulged in two kinds of intoxicating liquor, called soma and sura. Sura probably was a kind of beer. Soma juice was considered to be particularly acceptable to the Gods, and was offered with elaborate ceremonial. The Sama Veda provides the chants appropriate for the ceremonies.
Amusements: Amusements included dancing, music, chariot-racing, and dicing. Gambling with dice is mentioned so frequently in both the Rig Veda and the later documents that the prevalence of the practice is beyond doubt.

Rivers Mentioned in Rig Veda
Rig Vedic Name	New Name
Gomati	Gomal
Krumi	Kurram
Kubha	Kabul
Suvastu	Swat
Sindhu	Indus
Drishadvari	Ghaghar/Chitang
Satudri	Satluj
Vipas	Beas
Parushni	Ravi
Asikni	Chenab
Vitasta	Jhelum

Frequency of Important Words Mentioned in Rig Veda
Word	Times Mentioned	Word	Times Mentioned
Pita	335	Rajya	1
Ashva	315	Kulpa	1
Jana	275	Ganga	1
Mata	234	Samudra	1
Indra	250	Sabha	8
Gau	176	Samiti	9
Vish	171	Grama	13
Vidata	122	Vidatha	122
Brahmana	14	Yamuna	3
Surya	10	Rashtra	10
Kshatriya	9	Krishi	33
Yamuna	3	Sena	20 Approx.
Raja	1	Rudra	3
Sudra	1	Vrihaspati	11
Vaishya	1	Prithavi	1

Rig Vedic Polity

The administrative machinery of the Aryans in the Rig Vedic period worked with the tribal chief in the centre. He was called rajan. Although his post was hereditary, we have also some traces of election by the tribal assembly called the samiti. The king was called the protector of his tribe. He protected its cattle, fought its wars and offered prayers to gods on its behalf.
Several tribal assemblies, such as sabha, samiti, vidatha, and ganamentioned in the Rig Veda exercised deliberative, military and religious functions. Even women attended the sabha and vidatha in Rig Vedic times. But from the political point of view important were the sabha and samiti
In the day-to-day administration, the king was assisted by a few functionaries. The most important functionary seems to have been thepurohita. The two priests who played a major part in the time of Rig Vedawere Vasishtha and Visvamitra. The next important functionary seems to be the senani. Princes received from the people voluntary offering calledbali.
There were cases of theft and burglary, and especially we hear of the theft of cows. Spies were employed to keep an eye on such unsocial activities. The officer who enjoyed authority over the pasture ground was called vrajapati. He led to the heads of the families called Kulapas. or the heads of the fighting hordes called gramanis to battle. The king did not maintain any regular or standing arymy, but in times of war he mustered a militia whose military functions were performed by different tribal groups called vrata, gana, grama, sardha.

Tribal Polity

The chief was the protector of the tribe or Jana However, he did not possess unlimited powers for he had to reckon with the tribal assemblies Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Gana were the tribal assemblies. Of these, Vidhata was the oldest. These assemblies exercised deliberative, military and religious functions. The two most important assemblies were the Sabha and Samiti. Samiti was general in nature and less exclusive than Sabha. Women attended Sabha and Vidhata in Rig Vedic times. A few non-monarchical states (ganas), are described whose head was Ganapati or Jyestha.

When Aryans were arrival in India?

Aryans arrival in India

The Aryans came to India in several waves. The earliest wave is represented by the Rig Vedic people who appeared in the subcontinent in about 1500 BC. They came into conflict with the indigenous inhabitants called the Dravidians mentioned as dasa or dasyus in Rig Veda. The Rig Veda mentions the defeat of Sambara by Divodasa, who belonged to the Bharata clan. Possibly the dasyus in the Rig Veda represent the original inhabitants of the country, and an Aryan chief who overpowered them was called Trasadvasyu. The Aryan chief was soft towards the dasas, but strongly hostile to the dasyus. The term dasyuhatya, slaughter of the dasyus, is repeatedly mentioned in the Rig Veda.
Some of the chief tribes of the period were Yadu, Turvasu, Druhyu, Anu Puru, Kuru, Panchala, Bharata and Tritsu. Among the inter-tribal conflicts the most important was the 'Battle of the Ten Kings.'

Dravidians

It is believed that before the coming of the Aryans in India, the greater part of Northern and North-Western India was inhabited by a group of people known as Dravidians. On arrival of the Aryans, unable to meet their challenge, they gradually moved southwards. Perhaps, in India, they were first to use rivers for navigation and irrigation

Aryans

The group of Indo-Europeans who moved to Persia and India are known to Aryans The Aryans are the original inhabitants of Central Asia. The arrived in India around 1500 BC, though there is an on going debate. The region where the Aryans settled in India was called Sapta Sindhu (also referred to as the Brahmavarta) The Aryans established themselves in India by defeating the natives whom they called Dasas or Dasyus The period when the Aryans first settled in India, is known as Early Vedic Period (1500 BC to 1000 BC) The Aryans spread to Indo-Gangetic plains in the later Vedic Period and this region came to be known as Aryavarta (1000 BC to 600 BC) The Aryans were the first people in India to know the use of iron and brought horses along with them.

Origin of Aryans of vedic age

Some scholars, such as Max Muller and Dr. Thapar, believe that originally, the Aryans seem to have lived somewhere in the area east of Alps, in the region known as Eurasia, the region of the Caspian Sea and the southern Russian steppes, and gradually dividing into a number of tribes migrated in search of pasture, to Greece and Asia Minor, to Iran and to India. By that time, they came to be known as Aryans. This is proved by some Aryan names mentioned in the Kassite inscriptions of 1600 BC and the Mitanniinscriptions of the fourteenth century BC, found in Iraq which suggest that from Iran a branch of the Aryans moved towards the west.

Original Home of Aryans
Region	Theorist
Asia
Central Asia	Max Muller
Tibet	Dayanand Saraswati
Pamirs	Mayor
Turkistan	Hurz Feld
Bactria	J.C. Rod
Steepes	Brandstein
Europe
Germany	Penka and Hert
Hungry	Giles
Southern Russia	Nehring
West Baltic	Mach
Arctic Region	B.G. Tilak
Russian Steppes	Prof. Belfy
India
Central India	Rajbali Pandey
Kashmir	L.D. Kala
Sapta Sindhu	A.C. Das
Himalayan Foothills	Pt. Laxmidhar Shastri

Other Scholars, such as Ganganath Jha, A.C. Das, Dr. Sampurnanand etc established the Sapta-Sindhu theory of Rig Veda which believe that Aryans were not foreigners but were indigenous people residing in the region comprising modern Punjab and Sindh. This theory has met with criticism, as the historians argue over the vast differences of culture between the Harappans and the Aryans.
Another theory propounded by Lokmanya Tilak suggests the Polar region as the regional homeland of Aryans, Zend Avesta and Rig Veda. Shows peculiar similarities in the terms used for religion and socio-economic context.

Vedic Civilisation

Early Vedic Age: The Vedic age began in India in about 1500 BC and extend upto 6000 BCE with the coming of the Aryans, who scattered on the plains of northern India. Max Muller believes it an anomaly to regard the race as Aryan because scientifically Aryan connotes nothing but language. The relationship between the race and language of these people with the classical languages of Europe was established by a Bavarian Franz Bopp in 1816.
Aryans developed Vedic culture based on Vedas. The meaning of the word Veda is "knowledge", the best of all knowledge in the eyes of Hindus. It is a collection of hymns, prayers, charms, litanies and sacrificial formulae. There are four Vedas, namely,Rig Veda, Sam Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda.

Vedic Civilisation

Origin of Indian Music - Samveda Mention of Word 'Shudra' - Rigveda 10th Mandala Gayatri Mantra - Rigveda Mention of word 'Yajna' - Brahmana Somaras (drink) - Rigveda (9th Mandala) Varna - Rigveda Four fold division of Society - Rigveda 10th Mandala Mention of four Ashrams - Jabala Upanishada War between Aryan & Dasas - Rigveda Transmigration of Soul - Brahadaranyka Upanishada

Five divisions of India - Aiteraya Brahamana Wife and Husband are complementary - Satapathabrahmana Battle of Ten kings - Rigveda (7th Mandala) Superiority of Brahmins - Aiteraya Brahmana Rajanaya - Rigveda 10th Mandala Marut as Agriculturist - Satpatha Brahmana Satyameva Jayate - Mundaka upanishada Pashupath Shiva - Atharveda Vishnu - Satapatha Brahmana Conversion between Yam & Nachiketa - Katha Upanishada

INDIA and the VEDIC period The Gods from INDIA from 1700 to 650 BC

RUDRA : the god of storms - a frightening god whose voice could be heard roaring in the storm.
SANJNA : the god of conscience and the wife of SURYA (sun). The couple has three children:
MANU (NOAH), YAMA (god of hell) and YAMI (the queen of the river Yamuna.)
SARASVATI : the wife of BRAMHA. In ancient times she personified one of the 3 sacred streams.
SOMA : the name of the nectar of the gods; he later became the Moon god.
VARUNA : personified the sky and the earth. He was the most ancient Vedic god. He supervised the Demons of the ocean and of darkness.
VAYU : the god of the wind. He had other names also. He was the bearer of perfumes, and
sometimes known as the god who was never at rest.
VRITR : the evil, destructive snake who caused famine. However, he also started the Creation of The World.
YAMA : the god of the mind and the messenger of death.




Temple of Maduria, showing many ancient Hindu gods.

Around the year 1700BC by tribes of Iranian invaders (and people of fairer skin), who came from Northern India and from beside the Caspian Sea. They were later named ARYAN people.

Arriving in wild unruly hordes, these Aryans first invaded the valley of the Indus and destroyed the cities of HARP and MOHENJO-DARO. After settling on the verdant plains, they gradually spread out and conquered the ancient people of the South West of India, but allowing the conquered peoples to venerate their own gods and rituals.

Their principal divinity was INDRA, the god of war and thunder, whose power was capable of destroying the walls of cities, of burning them down in order to conquer and pillage them… For a long time the behaviour of the gods would reflect that of wicked men with the mentality of Aryan conquerors, materialistic and pitiless! Where did this god originate who could destroy ramparts and whom these these half savage men feared as they feared thunder ?

In India, a thousand years would pass before there was a noticable change in men's thinking. A new kind of spirituality and with it a new way of looking at the gods came due to the teachings of the Brahmans (the priests et monks of India). These men who refused to commit any act of violence, demonstrated by the example of their saintly life, that the gods were not there to kill all living things, but instead to help the weak, and to inspire the human race to live in a new spirit of conciliation and a search for perfection. This new faith found one of its principal tenants in the theory of the reincarnation cycles of the lives of souls, which are sent back to earth until they are judged to be worthy of going up to heaven and becoming immortal, like the gods. From this evolution of spirituality was born successively : Hinduism, Buddhism and Jaïnism, which replaced the Vedic religion.

Gradually India began to turn away from the gory ritualistic sacrifice of animals and human beings to the cruel Vedic gods, replacing this by offering cereals, oils and vegetables. They began to discover another spirituality, which would open for them the way to the gods who would strengthen the image of a perfect, just and merciful god.



The importance of sacrifice in the Vedic religion

In order to better understand the role of ritual sacrifices at the beginning of the Vedic period, we must try to put ourselves in the position of these primitive Aryan people who had left their homeland for reasons of sheer survival. The man of this period was a conqueror, a hunter and a predator; he followed the example of nature, where the strongest devour the weak, allowing him to live and reinvigorate himself.

Primitive man saw his gods in a materialistic way and believed he could please them by offering them human flesh. Priests drank the blood of the animal sacrifices (mixed with wine and also SOMA, a macerated plant in a kind of liqueur, which produced trance like states).



Physical love as a Symbol of the Creation of the Universe

Like the Egyptians and Assyrians, ancient Indian society honored first the sun and the moon, the latter often being considered as a feminine deity, who was both the companion of the sun and the Great Mother of Life and the Universe.

This very ancient cult of a feminine deity had its origin in prehistory. It was quickly stamped out by the arrival of the Aryans, who during several years returned India to patriarchal worship, which was more suitable to the nature of these wild, aggressive invaders. (The first Dravidian farmers had left the defense of their communities, villages and families largely to the women).

However, slow evolution towards Hinduism, and inter-marriage with the invaders led to a return to the ancient rituals and the cult of the mother god. This was accompanied by a return to the worship of fleshly "desires" symbolized by Shiva : the phallic god, who (like the Egyptian god Min) fertilized nature as represented by 8 million Yonis (female organs).
" Like a father and mother, Nature and the Cosmic Being gave birth to all the different forms of life. In this world, men who want to have children impregnate women with their sperm. In the same way the Supreme Being wanting offspring impregnates Nature "(Karapatri, Siddhanta)

When an egg is cut open 2 distinct parts are seen: the white represents the sky, having the earth at its yellow center. The Cosmic egg becomes the symbol of the universe, showing the male and female elements, which unite to create a new life..
" The universal Mother becomes the altar and the phallus represents the consciousness of life " (Shiva Puran), and it is written in the same look that :

" Those who venerate the phallus, knowing that it is the reason and source of consciousness and the substance of the Universe is nearest to me. "

These are the first primitive religious concepts known from ancient India.



POLYTHEISM in Vedic times :

When one realizes that there were in the many different regions of India several versions of the creation story, it is not surprising that there were no less than 3,000 gods venerated in Vedic times.

The sage Yajanavalka, assigned the gods to different spheres reduced their number to thirty-three :


1 - The 8 Spheres of influence or VASUs


The earth (Prithivi)
Fire (Agni) : food
Space (Antariksha)
Wind (Vayu): life giving breath
Sky (Dyaus)
Sun (Surya): intellect
The Constellations or stars: (Nakshatra)
The moon (Soma): oblation, seed of immortality.

These are the 8 (Vasu-s) who live in the world and the world lives in them.


2 - The 11 life PRINCIPLES, the gods of space and life

The "angry ones": RUDRAs. These are believed to be 10 kinds of vital energy. When we die, they leave our bodies and we mourn their loss. Thus they are called the "cause of tears". They are the sons of the saga Vision (Kashyapa) and Fragrant Earth (Surabbi). They are the companions of Rudra-Shiva.


3 - the 12 sovereign PRINCIPLES - ADITYA-s

These are the 12 months of the year and govern the passage of time. They are also guides of life.


4 - The Celestial Ruler (the thunder) - INDRA

He is the being who is the manifestation of the heart.


5 - The Progenitor - PRAJAPATI

He is the Supreme Ruler (Parameshthin) the immovable one, the renewer of life (the Eternal or SVAYAMBHU).



The double incarnation of "RITUAL ART" or DAKSHA
( The supreme creation principle )



He was later known as "Brahma" (Mahabharata 13)

He is the son of the "Immense Being" and considered to be the source of cosmic life, the father of the gods, of men and the anti-gods. He represents the power of ritual, which joins men to the gods. He gave birth to the moving universe and his cult was linked to that of the King of the dead (Yama) and his scribe Citra.

The first "RITUAL ART" or DAKSHA was born during the Cakshuana Manu cycle, the son of Manisha and 10 awakened beings (Pracetas.)Daksha married Obscure (Asini) the daughter of Depth, (Virana) who was also a creation god. DAKSHA had at first 10,000 sons called the "Happy Horses" (Haryashva), andthen 10,000 speedy horses (Saralashva), who were born from spiritual union. However the sage Narada prevented further creation by forcing them to take holy vows and lead an ascetic life.


The first "RITUAL ART" also gave birth to 69 daughters conceived naturally :



10 married the Law of Perfection: DHARMA
13 married the sage VISION: KASHYAPA : they were named the mothers of the world.
04 married the celestial horse Takshya.
27 married the god of the moon, SOMA : they formed the houses of the moon.
02 married Existence: BHUTA.
02 married the flamboyant ANGIRASA.
02 Married the "rich in horses" : KRISHASHVA.

According to the Bhagavata Purana, the second "RITUAL ART"or DAKSHA married Prasuti, the daughter of Sva-yambhura Manu and she bore 16 daughters, 13 of whom married the law of Perfection (DHARMA). SATI, the youngest, (named FIDELITY) married SHIVA.

She allowed herself to be burned to death because she could not bear the dispute between her father and husband. SHIVA, who loved her dearly, sent the monster Virabhadra to avenge her death.

Virabhadra decapitated DAKSHA, in the fire of the South. After a while, SHIVA decided to revive DAKSHA, on condition that he could take in exchange the first head he saw. It was that of a goat, which was being led to sacrifice.



The Great Lord BRIHASPATI,
The tutor of the Vedic gods

Shradda (Devotion) was unfaithful to her husband (the sage "Flamboyant" or ANGIRAS) and gave birth to a still born child. However, due to her piety, she pleased her husband who gave her a child named BRIHASPATI, the god of intelligence and the tutor of the other gods.

The "son of the sky" with 7 faces and 7 rays, he had pointed horns, a golden axe and arrows. Seated on his chariot pulled by red horses, he controlled the movements of the sky and the planets. His son is the sage BHARDVAJA, (the swallow).

He was given several other names: The Lord of the priests (Brahmanaspati), the Lord of celestial cohorts (Gasnapati) or the king of the ancients (Jyeshtha-raja.) With his wife (Vani or Dhena), (the word), he teaches the science of the luminaries (astronomy and astrology). He reigned over the sun and moon.

The TUTOR of the gods also inspired a book on charity, which teaches the ascetic to become finally an equal with the gods !

According to the Shankaracarya, the main Vedic gods that govern the different areas of the body are :


MITRA - the spirit of day is the inhaled breath (prana)
VARUNA - the spirit of the night is the exhaled breath.
BRIHASPATI - the tutor of the gods; he represents intelligence and the word.
INDRA - the kings of the gods whose arm represents strength.
ARYAMAN - whose eye personifies the Sun.
VISHNU the immanent - his breath brings forth the Vedas, from his sight the 5 elements, from his smile came the universe and from his sleep complete destruction.



THE SEERS :

Seers represent the "fundamental energies" which combine to create and protect all life. They are 7 forces, which live in the sky, with the gods of the elements.

They are usually represented as the 7 stars of the Great Bear. Each of these is a form of energy, which is part of the law of perfection (Dharma). This is the basis of the universe and is manifested in the revelations of the Veda.



THE SEVEN FIRST SEERS
(their cosmic origin and functions) :

1. "Ray of light" = MARICI, husband of Good Health = Sambhuti, who was also the god of the wind and the father of Vision.

2. "Devourer" = ATRI, husband of GUILESS = Anasuya, who gave him Datta, Durvasas and Soma in his first life, and Aryaman (Nobility) and his sister Anala (Purity) in his second life. Born out of the imagination of the Great Being (Brahma) he spurted forth from his eyes. The sons of Brahma had been killed by a curse from Shiva but Atri the devourer revived them in the flames of a sacrifice offered by Brahma.

3. "The Flamboyant" = ANGIRAS, whose principal wives were : Modesty = Lajja; Tradition = Smiriti, and DEVOTION = Shraddha. He also married several daughters of the Seer Daksha and 2 daughters of Maitreya.
Devotion gave him 4 sons : fire = Agni, Immanent truth = Utathya; the movement of the cosmos = Samvarta and the grand Master = Brihaspati (the preceptor of the gods).

The 4 daughters of Devotion and Agni were Sinivali (the first day of the moon, the symbol of fertility); Kuhu (the new moon); Raka(full moon) and Anumati (acceptation or the most auspicious day for the gods to receive their offerings).

ANGIRAS was considered to be the source of light, the priest of the gods and Lord of sacrifices. He was a manifestation of Agni, the power of spiritual illumination and transcendent consciousness born of the thought of the Great Being.

04. "The bridge into space" = PULAHA, whose wife was Pardon = KSHAMA. Pulaha and Rulastya were Seers of the antigods of whom Kashyapa was the progenitor

05. "Inspiration" =KRATU, whose wives were: Humility = Sannati, and Action = Kriya (who had the head of the horse named Hayashiras). He was the source of all intelligence, one of the 10 sons of the great being who had conceived the human race. He was also the father of 60,000 Valaskhilyas, wise men who were only an inch tall and surrounded the chariot of the sun (Bhagavata Purana).

06. "Smooth hair" = PULASTYA and his wife Tenderness = PRITI. His sons the Yakshas were the guardians of treasures and of the Great Being (Brahma). Kubera, the companion of Shiva was also the son of "Smooth Hair".

07. "The Possessor of riches" = VASISHTA, whose wife was Fidelity = Arundhati. He was the son of the cow of Abundance (Delight = NANDINI). Son of Varuna and Mitra; (his mother would become the nymph Urvashi.)



FIVE NEW SEERS :

Several centuries later the power of the fundamental energies or seers diminished and was considered instead as celestial SAGES, bearing the ordinances of the gods. There were also created 5 new Seers :

08. "Ritual Art" = (Daksha) gradually lost its functions as Creator and was replaced by Vishnu and placed among the new sages.

09. The 10 awakened forms of consciousness - Pracetas.

10. The sparks of fire (Brighu) or the power of knowledge.

11. "The GIVER of ADVICE" = (Narada) or the power of persuasion. Associated with Parvata (the Immovable) he acted as a messenger between the gods and man. Son of Brahma, he liked to spread discord. He was born from the thigh of Brahma ! He is the god of music.

12. "The MOVER of MOUNTAINS" = (Agastya) or mover of the Immovable. He was the son of Mitra-Varuna and despite his small size represented the power of knowledge and of the sciences. It is said that one day he swallowed the ocean and even made the Vindhya mountains bow down before him. His wife was Lohamundra and his father was King of the Videhas.



The 14 MANUS or cycles of Creation

The day of the great Being is divided into 14 parts and over each one a Manu reigns. Each period called a Manvantara corresponds to 4 million, 320 thousand human years. These 14 parts form a Kalpa.

The first Manu is the sun of the self-begotten after it had divided into 2 parts: male & female. From him were born the 12 Great Seers and the human race, and 3 times a day the Seers and their sons prayed for the stability of the world:


The cycle of the Lawgiver - the Son of the Self-begotten: Svayambhuva.
The cycle of the Son of the Self-illuminated : Svarocisha.
The cycle of the Son of the Very-High : Auttama.
The cycle of the Son of obscurity : Tamasa.
The cycle of the Son of Wealth : Raivata.
The cycle of the Son of Sight : Cakshusha.
The cycle of the present time : Vaivasvata.
The cycle of the Parent of the Sun : Arka Savarnika.
The cycle of the Parent of Ritual Art : Daksha Savarnika.
The cycle of the Parent of Immensity : Brahma Savarnika.
The cycle of the parent of Perfection : Dharma Savarnika.
The cycle of the parent of the Lord of tears : Rudra Savarnika.
The cycle of the parent of Light : Deva Savarnika or the son of clarity: Raucya.
The cycle of the Parent of Power : Indra Savarnika.

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

The study of all these names and functions can appear arduous at first to those who wish to understand the Vedic, Hindu and Buddhist religions and their sects.

Our classification will help to define the different periods, which at first are not ancient. At least we can try to understand the spheres of influence(which can vary somewhat) of the gods and their functions along the road to "realization" and "illumination".

No matter what their names they unite adepts of all religions who extol ethics, tolerance and compassion for those who are suffering.



The 12 Gods or Elements called "ADITYAS" :

In Vedic times, the 12 elements/gods represented the moral principles, which rule our world and the world of the gods. They are represented as thespokes of the wheel of time.



The Wheel : symbol of Eternity : Natamandir.

They are the children of Infinity, the great Aditi, the mother of the gods who extends infinitely way beyond the sea and the clouds. Aditi is the daughter of Ritual Art, (Daksha). From her marriage to Vision (Rashyapa) were born 12 children who are the elements:


Friendship (Mitra), respect and solidarity between men.
Honor (Anyman), the chivalrous mind, moral principles.
Sharing (Bhaga) of possessions.
Destiny (Varung) the unknown, the unexpected, that can give support (Dhatri)
Luck (Amsha) celestial inheritance, the gift of the gods.
Industry (Tvashtri), the maker of weapons, the craftsman
Progress (Pushan): the nurturer, prosperity, security
Morals or human law (Vivasvat): order
Magic (Savitri): the power of words
Courage (Shakra): power, heroism, confidence
The knowledge or perception of Cosmic Law (Vishnu): Immanent divine knowledge.

VISHNU penetrates all, knows all, is everywhere. Vishnu is spoken of in the Rigveda and even though he is not in the first rank of gods, he is very important. He is called the brother of Indra.

These are the 12 elements that mature beings discover mostly in the later part of their life on earth. They prepare us for our spiritual rebirth.

In Vedic times, Varuna was the omniscient, the master of the Adityas. He was an invisible being that guided birds, the tides, the moon and the course of the winds. (Rigveda)

In later mythology, Varuna became the god of death and Indra replaced him as regent of the sky.



I N D R A - the King of the Vedic Gods

Indra is the god of storms that sink ships and of thunder knocks down walls of defense during siege. He crosses the sky on his horse or in a god chariot. He is the son of Privithi (the Earth) and byaus (the sky), who are also the parents of the gods and of men.

The nature of the world to Vedic Seers appeared to be one of perpetual sacrifice. A strange system where the weakest become food and vital energy for the growth of the strongest.

After creating the universe by his will, (Maya the principle of justice and truth, a name that is found in Central America). Indra used his third eye (Varuna) to supervise the human race. (In Egypt, one speaks of the eye of Re!).

Here are two excerpts from the Bhagavad-Gita (chap 10), that not only show the superiority of the powers of Krishna over Indra but also mention (as in the Bible) the sacred tree that grew in Paradise and the deluge or flood :

1.) Fearing the birth of a son more powerful than himself, Indra struck the stomach of his wife Didi with lightning and the embryos born were the 60 Maruts (small demons) who became gods of the storm. A great battle took place between the gods and demon monsters (Daityas) whom with Rahu churned up the primordial sea. During this battle there was an eclipse of the moon and also Dhanvantani, the physician of the gods and AMRITA : The Water, that assures us eternal life.

When Krishna went to Paradise to take Parijata, the sacred tree, Indra tried to stop him. However, Indra was not successful and was able to take away the tree.

2.) Indra was the god of the herders of Vraja. Krishna persuaded them to give up this worship. Furious; Indra sent a flood to earth to drown the herders. Krishna then raised the mountain Govardhana and kept it in place for 7 days to save the men. Indra had to yield to Krishna, the incarnation of Vishnu.



AGNI : the god of fire in Vedic times :

He was the brother of Indra but he started his career by devouring his parents! A mediator between gods and men, he wrestled demons. He was famous for his straightforward speaking. He is the one who welcomes the sky when he died

The 3 parts of the world known to man are :
The Earth where men evolve according to the principle of the elements.
Space where minds, that are the regents of life evolve.
The World of the Heavens or Cosmos where the gods live.

Agni, the Lord of Fire, resides in all these areas and the gods rest the axes of his wheel. In their hymns, the Seers honor the three forms of the Great Being under the three forms of fire which live in all creatures born in the three worlds: (extract from the Brihad-devata)
Those of EARTH in the form of lightning (Indra)
Those of SPACE in the from of the wind (Vayu)
Those of the SKY in the form of the Sun (Surya)

AGNI is the second god of the Vedas; he brought success to all enterprises. He gave intelligence, power, health and beauty to man. He was the guardian of the celestial sphere. As the oldest son of the Great Being, he illuminated all things.

His wife (Svaha) "she who brings obligation and duty" bore him 3 sons: Pure One (Pavaka), Purifying One (Pavamana) and Purity (Shuci).


* There are 10 forms of fire : 5 natural and 5 ritual :


Agni is earthly, visible fire.
Indra (Vayu) is the thunderbolt that destroys houses and forests.
Surya (Sun) was named the god of the sky.
Vaishranara (the one who penetrates all things) the food (spiritual and material) which changes into energy for the body and soul.
Destructive fire that sleeps in a volcano and some day will destroy the world
The Immense fire (Brahma-agni ) or the sacred fire of sacrifices.
The fire of the Self-perpetuating One (Prajapatya-agni) and of the promise made at the investiture of the sacred cord at the ritual of Agni-hotra.
The Home fire (Garhapatya-agni) the fire of family life and love, which starts with marriage and must never, go out.
The fire for the ancestors (Dakshina-agni) the fire of memory which exorcises and receives the offerings of the dead.
The funeral fire (Dakshina-agni) which consumes the bodies of the dead.



The SUN-SURYA in the sky DYAUS

The Sun is the third Great God of the Vedas. It is the center of our planetary system. It represents the boundary between known spheres such as the moon, the earth and the unknown worlds of the Self -Begotten One and the supreme will.

In the Puranas, the Sun is the son of the wise man (Kashyapa), or Vision and of the mother goddess ADITI.

The Sun is the soul of the world (Rik-Samhita). It is the light that has always existed; the being that resides in us and warms us, guiding and regulating our bodily functions.

SURYA has 4 wives :
Samjna (knowledge), who in the Mahabharata is the daughter of the Great ARCHITECT Vishvakarman.
Rajni (Sovereignty)
Prabha (Light)
Chaya (Shade).

Their 3 children are the legislator Manu, Yama the ruler of the dead and the river Tamma. The Sun has 2 names: SURYA (the luminous shining one) and ADITYA (the son of the primordial origin of all things). This was why the ancients believed the sun to be the origin of the world. (There was a parallel idea in Egypt regarding crossing a river to reach the kingdom of the dead).



V A Y U : the god of the wind

Wind is the friend of fire--perfumed and caressing, it wonders around the abode of the gods, stimulating the senses. It is the messenger of the gods, the breath of the world, the bringer of life to all beings (Mahabharata 12).

Purifying and cleasing, it penetrates all three worlds like celestial musician.



Changes after the Vedic Period :

We have just listed the ancient Vedic gods, many of which remained unchanged from pre-Vedic times. Their names were passed down by oral tradition from time immemorial.

We also see some gods (who had been thought of as beneficent spirits) being demoted by successive generations to secondary divinities and then to wicked, cruel spirits. They were then replaced by new gods.

The Vedic period passes smoothly into the Hindu period which was flourishing by 700 to 600BC.

With the modifications of the ancient gods a whole new spirituality developed that carried a real harmony of life, light, mental purification and spiritual searching for the Higher Self. Then followed a spiritual rebirth after death.

It is remarkable to note that this evolution was accomplished without the spilling of blood, which cannot be said for most great religious reform.

Vedic Age of India

Vedic Age

Duration: 1500 BC to 500 BC

The Vedic Period or the Vedic Age refers to that time period when the Vedic Sanskrit texts were composed in India. The society that emerged during that time is known as the Vedic Period, or the Vedic Age, Civilization. The Vedic Civilization flourished between the 1500 BC and 500 BC on the Indo-Gangetic Plains of the Indian subcontinent. This civilization laid down the foundation of Hinduism as well as the associated Indian culture. The Vedic Age was followed by the golden age of Hinduism and classical Sanskrit literature, the Maurya Empire and the Middle Kingdoms of India.

Vedic Texts

Linguistically, the texts belonging to the Hindu Vedic Civilisation can be classified into the following five chronological branches: 

Rigvedic

The oldest text of the Vedic Period, Rig Veda has many elements that are common with the Indo-Iranian texts, both in language and in content. One cannot find such similarity in any other Vedic text. It is believed that the compilation of the Rig Veda had stretched over a number of centuries. However, there is a conflict as to the completion date of the Rig Veda. Some historians believe it to be 1500 BC, while the others believe it to be 3000 BC. This time period coincided with the Indus Valley Civilization. 

Mantra Language
The period of the Mantra Language includes the time of the compilation of the mantra and prose language of the Atharvaveda (Paippalada and Shaunakiya), the Rigveda Khilani, the Samaveda Samhita and the mantras of the Yajurveda. Though derived from the Rig Veda, all these texts experienced wide scale changes, in terms of language as well as at the time of reinterpretation. This time period coincided with the early Iron Age in northwestern India and the Black and Red Ware culture. 

Samhita Prose
The period of Samhita Prose represents the compilation and codification of a Vedic canon. The linguistic changes of this time include the complete loss of the injunctive, the subjunctive and the aorist. The commentary part of the Yajurveda belongs to the Samhita Prose period. During this time, the Painted Grey Ware culture was evident. 

Brahmana Prose
This period signifies Brahmanas proper of the four Vedas, along with the oldest Upanishads. 

Sutra Language

The last division of the Vedic Sanskrit can be traced upto 500 BC. During this time, a major portion of the Srauta Sutras, the Grihya Sutras and some Upanishads were composed. 

Epic and Paninian Sanskrit (Post Vedic)
In the post-Vedic Period, the compilation of Mahabharata and Ramayana epics took place. The Classical Sanskrit described by Panini also emerged after the Vedic Age. The Vedanta and the Pali Prakrit dialect of Buddhist scripture belong to this period. During this time, the Northern Black Polished Ware culture started spreading over the northern parts of India. 

The end of the Vedic Period Civilization in India was marked by significant changes in the field of linguistics, culture and politics. With the invasion of the Indus valley by Darius I, in the 6th century, outside influences started creeping in. 

Early Vedic Period (Rigvedic Period)
The Rigvedic Period represents the time period when the Rig Veda was composed. The Rig Veda comprises of religious hymns, and allusions to various myths and stories. Some of the books even contain elements from the pre-Vedic, common Indo-Iranian society. Some similarities are also found with the Andronovo culture and the Mittanni kingdoms. Thus, it is difficult to define the exact beginning of the Rigvedic period. The prominent features of the Rigvedic period are given below: 

Political Organization
The political units during the Rigvedic or the early Vedic period comprised of Grama (village), Vish and Jana. The biggest political unit was that of Jana, after which came Vish and then, Grama. The leader of a Grama was called Gramani, of a Vish was called Vishpati and that of Jana was known as Jyeshta. The rashtra (state) was governed by a Rajan (King) and he was known as Gopa (protector) and Samrat (supreme ruler). The king ruled with the consent and approval of the people. There were four councils, namely Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Gana, of which women were allowed to attend only two, Sabha and Vidhata. The duty of the king was to protect the tribe, in which he was assisted by the Purohita (chaplain) and the Senani (army chief). 

Society and Economy
Numerous social changes took place during the early Vedic period. The concept of Varna, along with the rules of marriage, was made quite stiff. Social stratification took place, with the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas being considered higher than the Shudras and the Vaisyas. Cows and bulls were accorded religious significance. The importance of agriculture started growing. The families became patriarchal and people began praying for the birth of a son. 

Vedic Religious Practices
Rishis, composers of the hymns of the Rig Veda, were considered to be divine. Sacrifices and chanting of verses started gaining significance as the principal mode of worship. The main deities were Indra, Agni (the sacrificial fire), and Soma. People also worshipped Mitra-Varuna, Surya (Sun), Vayu (wind), Usha (dawn), Prithvi (Earth) and Aditi (the mother of gods). Yoga and Vedanta became the basic elements of the religion. 

Later Vedic Period
The later Vedic Period commenced with the emergence of agriculture as the principal economic activity. Along with that, a declining trend was experienced as far as the importance of cattle rearing was concerned. Land and its protection started gaining significance and as a result, several large kingdoms arose. 

Political Organization
The rise of sixteen Mahajanapadas, along with the increasing powers of the King, comprise of the other characteristics of this period. Rituals like rajasuya, (royal consecration), vajapeya (chariot race) and ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) became widespread. At the same time, the say of the people in the administration diminished. 

Society

As far as the society is concerned, the concept of Varna and the rules of marriage became much more rigid than before.The status of the Brahmanas and Kshatriyas increased greatly and social mobility was totally restricted. The proper pronunciation of verses became to be considered as essential for prosperity and success in war. Kshatriyas started amassing wealth and started utilizing the services of the Brahmins. The other castes were slowly degraded. Around 500 BC, the later Vedic Period started giving rise to the period of the Middle kingdoms of India.